Understanding the Pre-partnership Stage in Subnational International Cooperation

Abstract

The growth of Decentralized Development Cooperation (DDC) has encouraged local governments to engage more actively in international cooperation. However, existing paradiplomacy literature has primarily focused on the governance and implementation of established partnerships, while the processes preceding partnership formation remain underexplored. This article examines the pre-partnership stage in subnational international cooperation through a comparative analysis of the Yogyakarta–Gyeongsangbuk-do and Kedah–Fujian partnerships. The study employs a qualitative comparative case study based on in-depth interviews and document analysis. The findings identify three interrelated processes in partnership formation: defining local development needs, evaluating partner suitability based on strategic fitness and resource complementarity, and coordinating institutional actors before formalizing cooperation. More importantly, the cases reveal distinct institutional pathways through which these processes unfold. In Yogyakarta, an existing sister-province relationship provides an institutional platform, but specific cooperation programs emerge through negotiation among local governments, communities, and an intermediary organization. In Kedah, federal technical agencies more strongly mediate partner identification by linking sectoral development priorities with prospective international partners and providing institutional validation. These findings show that partner selection in paradiplomacy is not an automatic consequence of existing international ties or opportunities but a deliberative institutional process whose organization varies across governance configurations.